Intrinsic rate of increase is not known for any grouper species. Age at maturity varies according to species; 50% of female Red Grouper are mature at 3-5 years of age (Lombardi-Carlson 2002), estimates for other species are 4-5 years for Gag Grouper (NCDMF 2002), and 4-5 years for Yellowedge Grouper (Cass-Calay 2002). Because these ages are on the border between scoring categories, we used k values to determine that grouper should be scored in the middle category, as most k values fall within the medium range. Estimates of growth rates (k) for these grouper species are as follows: 0.1-0.18 for Red Grouper; 0.12-0.16 for Gag Grouper; and 0.1 for Yellowedge Grouper (Fishbase 2/5/03).

Maximum reported age of Red Grouper is 25 years (Fishbase); the most recent stock assessment notes Gag Grouper (GMFMC 2001) that were older than 25 years, so it is likely that they live well beyond that age; there is evidence that Yellowedge Grouper may live up to 85 years and 35-year old individuals have been reported (Cass-Calay and Bahnick 2002).

Most grouper species studied to date use localized spawning sites and group into aggregations to spawn (Turner 1999; Heemstra and Randall 1993), making it easier for fishers to target them. Musick et al. (2000) report that Gulf Grouper spawning aggregations are heavily fished.

Many grouper species, including those evaluated here, are protogynous hermaphrodites. They begin their lives as females and become males as they grow larger. (Fishbase 2003; Heemstra and Randall 1993). The tendency of these and other grouper species to display site-specificity, and their characteristic slow growth rates create an enhanced susceptibility to overfishing (Heemstra and Randall 1993). The sensitivity of these grouper species when combined with the uniqueness of their reproductive biology puts them at even greater risk. Protogynous fishes are more vulnerable to fishing pressure than gonochoristic fishes (Huntsman and Schaaf 1994; AFS 2003; Heemstra and Randall 1993). Male groupers, which are the result of sexual transformation of old females, are the largest and most senior members of a population. The largest individuals are often targeted by commercial, sport, and subsistence fishing alike. Biased fishing practices, meaning those targeting the largest fish, severely affect grouper populations by removing males in larger proportions than they exist in local populations (Heemstra and Randall 1993). Even moderate levels of fishing pressure have been shown to hinder grouper reproduction; in extreme cases fishing may remove all age classes containing males, which could totally prevent reproduction (Huntsman and Schaaf 1994).

Species range varies depending on the species. For example, Red Grouper occur in the western Atlantic, from North Carolina to southern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, and Bermuda. They are occasionally found as far north as Massachussetts. (Fishbase) Gag Grouper occur in the Western Atlantic from North Carolina to the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. Unlike Red Grouper, they are rare in Bermuda. They have also been reported in Cuba and eastern Brazil (Fishbase). No points were added or subtracted, as we do not consider these to be either small or wide ranges.

With the exception of a few species that have been assessed in U.S. waters, there is an extreme lack of data on many grouper species worldwide, making it impossible to adequately assess the abundance of many species. Estimates of total abundance are difficult to obtain for species such as groupers that are strongly associated with physical structures. Standards for abundance are typically based on an index of abundance calculated largely from landings data rather than fishery independent surveys.

Lack of data for almost all grouper species makes predicting population trends impossible.

Unique aspects of grouper reproduction make defining the age/size/sex distribution difficult. Most groupers are protogynous hermaphrodites (Heemstra and Randall 1993); in protogynous fishes individuals mature as females. Females spawn for one to two years, after which they change sex and become functional males (Huntsman and Schaaf 1994; Heemstra and Randall 1993). Thus, the largest members of grouper populations will likely be male. Seeing that fishing pressure is often focused on the largest individuals, sex ratios can be rapidly changed with the removal of the larger males from grouper populations. Fished populations are thereby subject to human-induced alterations in age structure and population size (Huntsman and Schaaf 1994) that will lead to alterations of the age/size/sex distribution. The continual alteration of the distribution due to these factors makes its definition nearly impossible.

Although there is little information on the age/sex/size distributions for most grouper populations, some data exist for grouper in the Gulf of Mexico. The 2002 assessment of red grouper shows that older fish have declined the most. Modal age ranged from 6 to 8 and was most often 7 years. Other data analysis showed that the modal age was 5 from 1999 to 2001 (SEFSC 2002). The age and sex distribution of gag grouper is also skewed. A reduced percentage of landings is comprised of size ranges larger than 74 cm (29 inches). Also, a 1994 assessment showed shift in female-to-male sex ratio from 6:1 to 34:1 between late 1970s and early 1990s. This raised concerns that the population could become overfished due to lack of available males.

Seven species of the Family Serranidae in the eastern-central Pacific are listed on IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2002). Among these species, Gulf Grouper and the Leopard Grouper, evaluated here, are listed as vulnerable (classification VU A1d+2D), indicating an estimated 20% reduction in biomass over the past 10 years (or three generations) and a projected additional decrease of 20% over the next 10 years or three generations (IUCN 2002). The Gulf Grouper has been given protected status by the state of California (Musik et al. 2000) and is federally listed as threatened and endangered by the United States government (Huntsman 1994). Goliath grouper, Nassau Grouper, Warsaw Grouper and Speckled Hind are all candidates for listing under the Endangered Species Act (NMFS 2003). None of the species in Mexico are classified with regard to conservation status.

Worldwide, groupers are caught with a variety of gear including longlines, buoy lines, traps, rod and reel, bandit gear, spearfishing gear and spears with powerheads. Traps have been banned in some areas of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. A medium score was awarded to account for the variety of fishing methods used to catch grouper.

Red grouper in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico are mostly caught with bottom longlines. Other gear includes handlines, bandit gear, rod and reel, and fish traps (Atran, personal comm., 2002). Two-thirds of gag grouper caught in the Gulf of Mexico are caught with handlines. The remaining catch is taken by longlines. A small amount of landings are taken with fish traps. The Gulf of Mexico is phasing out fish traps by 2007.

Although monitoring and trend data on coral reef health is sparse, coral reef areas in the U.S. appear threatened wherever they are close to large concentrations of human population (NMFS 1999). During the 1990s, coral disease was on the rise (NOAA 1998).

In most countries where grouper are caught, critical habitat areas are not protected. In contast, some closed areas have been designated in the U.S., such as in the Florida Keys and eastern Gulf of Mexico to protect spawning aggregations of grouper.

Morgan and Chuenpagdee (2003) reviewed the effects of hook and line, bottom longlines, vertical gear, traps and pots on coral reef/hard bottom habitats and classified them as medium impact. Recovery time for coral reef habitats is very slow.

Grouper fisheries in the U.S. are managed by the South Atlantic, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Councils. However, 98.5% of the grouper in the U.S. market is imported, with the majority of imports coming from Mexico. Although there is an overall national fishery management structure in Mexico, it does not provide specific management measures for grouper. The fishery law includes general principles such as sustainability and the importance of stock information, but there is no fishery management plan for grouper that implements any of the policies (SAGARPA 2001).

There is almost nothing known about the status of reef fish stocks including groupers in the Gulf of California (AFS 2003). Because grouper fisheries are largely unregulated in Mexico, monitoring is most likely to be inadequate.

Because no management measures are in place in Mexico for groupers, fishery effects on habitat, food webs, and ecosystems are not likely addressed.

None of the species in Mexico are classified with regard to conservation status.

Bycatch is monitored in the U.S. South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico fisheries. There is less monitoring in the Caribbean and none in Mexico. We do know, however, that groupers are caught on longlines in association with a variety of reef and other fish. Since many of these species are also landed, they are not characterized as “bycatch.” Species caught in association with grouper fisheries include sea trout, eels, barrelfish, tilefish, rosefish, scorpionfish, flounders, yellowfin tuna, snappers, hake, mako sharks, swordfish, crevalle and dolphinfish. Juveniles of the target species, and groupers from all species that may or may not be the fishery target, including overfished species that have stringent catch limits or are prohibited, such as Warsaw Grouper, are also caught (Cass-Calay 2002).

Goliath Grouper, Nassau Grouper, Warsaw Grouper and Speckled Hind are all candidates for listing under the Endangered Species Act (NMFS 2003) and may be caught as bycatch in grouper fisheries (Cass-Calay 2002).