No estimates of intrinsic rate of increase are available for American Lobster. Canada's DFO reports that the age at maturity for American Lobster is 5-8 years (DFO 1998b; DFO 2001), however, 10-12 years may be a more accurate estimate (Steneck, pers. comm., 2004). Lobsters may live to 100 years old, but estimates are difficult because as lobsters molt, they leave behind the material that would be used for age determination (ASMFC 2000). The largest lobster documented by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) was 48 lbs, or approximately 40-65 years old (DFO 2001).

American Lobsters are found only along the continental shelf waters from Newfoundland to North Carolina (ASMFC 2000). We consider this to be a small range.

Egg bearing lobsters will avoid crowds to protect their eggs, making them less likely to enter lobster traps. If captured, fishers return egg bearing females to the water and most lobsters are able to survive. In addition, undersized lobsters have behaviors that allow them to exit the trap if they're caught (Steneck, pers. comm., 2004).

Female lobsters have one clutch and carry their eggs for 9-12 months (or 10-12 months in Southwest Nova Scotia) before eggs hatch and are released (DFO 2001). Although this strategy might appear to be a vulnerability, it actually contributes to the resilience of the population because unlike Spiny Lobsters and many crab species, American Lobster have high parental investment in their eggs. Once the eggs hatch, the larval period is short, and the per capita survival rate of eggs is high. Also, larvae actively select shelter-providing subtrate, unlike many crabs (Steneck, pers. comm., 2004).

The American Lobster does not exhibit high natural population variability as a result of broad-scale environmental change. The fishery was very stable from 1946 to 1986, indicating that there are no major interannual fluctuations. Since then, there has been an up-turn, which may be the result of a North Atlantic oscillation. However, the overall stability of lobster population argues against environmentally driven volatility (Steneck, pers. comm., 2004).

In the U.S., indices of abundance include trends in landings, fishing mortality rates and egg production per recruit. Maximum egg production per recruit is used as a biological reference point for abundance in U.S. lobster fisheries.

Steneck and Wilson (2001) show that by most measures lobster density is high within the center of lobster's range, where the vast majority of lobsters are caught (Gulf of St. Lawrence through Gulf of Maine). We chose to use Steneck and Wilson's results as the best indicator of abundance, because in contrast to the ASMFC reports, Steneck and Wilson's findings have been peer reviewed. The ASMFC uses Maximum egg production per recruit as a biological reference point for abundance in U.S. lobster fisheries. According to the most recent stock assessment, egg production per recruit (EPR) is low compared to maximum EPR (3.2% EPR in Gulf of Maine; 6.2% EPR in Georges Bank and South; 8.3% EPR South of Cape Cod and Long Island Sound) (ASMFC 2002a). Based on this index of abundance, the ASMFC classifies American Lobster as growth overfished in the U.S. and recruitment overfished in Canada. Steneck and other scientists worldwide with expertise in lobster biology and management argue against the value of the egg per recruit model in assessing lobster abundance (Steneck, pers. comm., 2004).

American Lobsters are classified as growth overfished in the U.S. (ASMFC 2002a) and recruitment overfished in Canada (DFO 1998b). However, no points were subtracted here because peer reviewed research by Steneck and Wilson (2001) shows that lobsters are abundant and should not be classified as overfished.

Landings have increased in both the U.S. and Canada compared to the long-term averages. In the U.S. landings have been increasing since the 1960s due to both increasing fishing effort and increased lobster abundance (ASMFC 2000). In Canada, increases have been recorded since the mid-1970s. Increases are thought to be related to favorable environmental conditions enabling high survival of larvae (DFO 1998b; DFO 2001b). Canadian trends have now stabilized at a high level (Steneck, pers. comm., 2004). In Southwest Nova Scotia, landings have remained high. In the Bay of Fundy, catch rates were higher in 2000 compared to previous decades (DFO 2001b). In Maine, where most lobsters in U.S. waters are caught, landings are at a record high. However, populations in Rhode Island and Long Island, NY, are suffering declines in their abundance due due to disease and other sources of mortality (ASMFC 2002).

The Atlantic States Fishery Management Commission reports that size composition is severely truncated. They state that in the U.S., the majority of lobsters landed are newly recruited animals, meaning that they have just barely reached legal size. On Georges Bank, 80% of landed female lobsters are within this category. This means that the animals are not 50% mature at this size and have not yet reproduced. The size of the lobsters brought in has fluctuated a bit over the years and has been increasing in recent years (ASMFC 2000). In Canada, most lobsters caught are first year recruits, meaning that lobsters are primarily caught between the minimum size and the first molt. There are fewer older animals in the population. It is difficult to determine, however, what the precise distribution of the catch is because the minimum size has changed many times in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence fishery (Comeau 2001).

Even though there are more female lobsters in the larger size classes as a result of the prohibiton on catching female lobsters, some lobster scientists state that this sex ratio is not necessarily a problem as long as there is no limitation on available sperm. Because dominant male lobsters can inseminate a female who can in turn save her eggs for two years, builds in a safety mechanism for fertilization. In addition, fishery reports state that the size distribution of the lobster population is skewed toward the smaller lobsters. However, according to some lobster scientists, this pattern does not mean that the largest lobsters are gone. Instead, by keeping the large classes and increasing the number of small lobsters in the population, the same ratio can be attained. Steneck (personal communication, 2004), argues that there has been an increase in the largest size classes and that there has been a population explosion among young lobsters.

For millenia, lobsters were consumed by cod. Now that abundance of cod is low, there are no real predators of lobsters and lobster abundance has never been so high. Consequently, lobsters can be considered close to virgin biomass, or at unfished levels, given the lack of trophic limitations of today (Steneck, pers. comm., 2004).

In Canadian fisheries, all lobsters are caught with traps (Comeau 2001). In the U.S., lobsters are caught primarily with traps. Approximately 2% of landings are taken with trawl gear (ASMFC 2000).

Robert Steneck, lobster biologist at the University of Maine, conducted research on the effects of trawling on the lobster habitat. Although he never published his results, he could not demonstrate any effects of trawling on lobster habitat. The rocks that American lobsters rely on for habitat appear stable enough that even if they roll, they still create suitable habitat for young lobsters. In contrast to spiny lobsters, which rely on fragile sponges for their habitat, lobster habitat appears resilient. Steneck also referes to lobster habitat study conducted by Carl Wilson, which found that 80% of lobster settlement occurs close to shore, rather than in farther offshore where dragging occurs (Steneck, pers. comm., 2004).

Both the U.S. and Canada manage their lobster fisheries. Management measures include limited entry programs, limits on the number of traps allowed, minimum sizes, escape vents on traps, and prohibitions on landing egg bearing females. Although not all measures are mandatory in Canada, Canada has a very short season to minimize the chances of overfishing (DFO 2001; ASMFC 2002).

Current conservation goals (including overfishing definitions) are based entirely on an egg per recruit model, which is not supported by many lobster scientists worldwide. Although government fishery management agencies conclude that lobsters are overfished based on this model, other indicators such as increases in lobster abundance over a 20 year period suggest that lobsters are abundant and are being managed sustainably (Steneck, pers. comm., 2004).

There are currently no management measures in place specifically to address effects of fishery on the ecosystem (Selburg, pers. comm., 2004). However, there are no indicators that lobsters are affecting the ecological community. For example, in areas where lobsters have died off (e.g. Long Island), there were no visible effects. This indicates that lobsters are not "strong interactors" in the community (Steneck, pers. comm., 2004).

Catches are monitored and stock assessments are performed in both the U.S. and Canada. Management agencies in both countries are working toward development of better monitoring of populations (ASMFC 2002; DFO 2001).

Lobsters are overfished in both the U.S. and Canada (ASMFC 2000), but efforts are underway to rebuild lobster abundance in both countries. In the U.S., Amendment 3 of the FMP outlined a rebuilding schedule to end overfishing by 2005. In many management areas, Lobster Conservation Management Teams are still investigating management measures to achieve the egg production rebuilding schedule (ASMFC 2002). In 1997 Canada’s DFO directed the fishery to implement measures to double eggs per recruit within four years (DFO 2001). Consequently, minimum carapace size was increased in most of the Lobster Fishing areas (LFA). And mandatory V-notching was implemented (DFO 2001). Although Canada has not yet met their goal, further efforts are underway to rebuild the lobster population. For example, the Southern Gulf of St. Lawrence fishery is currently developing a Conservation Harvesting Plan (CHP) based on the recommendations from the 2002 assessment. The recommendations from the assessment have been accepted and will be phased in over the next 3-4 years. Measures in the plan include increasing minimum sizes, reducing exploitation rates, and mandatory reporting of catches and effort (Comeau, pers. comm., 2003).

Although the lobster fisheries are not formally classified as "overcapitalized," all management areas in U.S. waters are working to limit effort in the fishery. For example, most areas are working to reduce the number of traps in the fishery. Maine and Canada have limits on the number of licenses allowed. Canadian managers are also working to reduce exploitation rates (Comeau, pers. comm., 2003).

The vast majority of lobsters are caught with traps, which have low bycatch of non-targeted finfish and undersized lobster species. Bycatch is low because lobster traps are vented (Stockwell 2001). However, there are significant concerns about entanglements of endangered North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) in lobster fishery gear. The population of right whales is currently estimated at only 300 animals due to centuries of hunting. Even though right whales have been protected from hunting for decades, the right whale population declined during the 1990s. Entanglements in fishing gear and collisions with ships are thought to be major causes of the decline. Right whales are known to feed in areas off New England and Canada where lobster fisheries occur (Clapham and Pace 2001). In 2002 there were eight confirmed right whale entanglements. The first five animals were sighted entangled in Canadian waters and the other three were sighted in U.S. waters (Frady, pers. comm., 2003). Of these eight animals, fishing gear was identified for two animals. NMFS confirmed that one animal clearly was entangled in lobster gear, and one animal was most likely entangled in gear that is used in the lobster fishery. The former washed ashore dead and the latter, which was first seen in Canadian waters, is alive and still has gear attached to it (Lankshear and Borggaard, pers. comm., 2003).

The Atlantic Large Whale Take Reduction Plan (ALWTRP) was implemented in 1997 (and modified in 1999, 2000, and 2002) to reduce injuries and deaths to large whales due to accidental entanglement in fishing gear in U.S. waters. Measures and programs in place under the ALWTRP include gear changes, a Disentanglement Network, a Sighting Advisory System, Dynamic Area Management (DAM), and Seasonal Area Management (NMFS 2003). Canadian lobster fisheries are not included in the U.S. ALWTRP. NMFS tries to coordinate with the Canadian DFO by including Canadian participants in the development of the plan. However, there are no regulations in Canadian lobster fisheries that specifically protect whales from fishing gear. Unlike the U.S., Canada does not have national legislation to protect marine mammals. Canadians have been more active in working to protect whales from ship strikes (Lankshear and Borggaard, pers. comm., 2003). Points were added here to account for the extensive efforts in U.S. fisheries.

In both U.S. and Canadian fisheries traps have escape vents to release undersized lobsters and other unwanted species (ASMFC 2002).

No information was available to determine if bycatch of lobster in other fisheries is a significant problem.