Western Rock Lobster (Australia)

Panulirus cygnus

Sometimes known as Spiny Lobster or West Coast Rock Lobster.

This species is wild-caught.

Summary

The first fishery certified by the Marine Stewardship Council, the Western Rock Lobster fishery of Australia remains a well-managed and sustainable fishery. Regular monitoring of juvenile lobster abundance allows managers to adjust fishing effort during periods of low recruitment. Although habitat effects are minimal, the occasional bycatch of sea lions, turtles and whales is of some concern.

This species is certified as a best environmental choice by the Marine Stewardship Council. Learn more at the MSC's website: www.msc.org

Criterion	Points
Life History	1.50
Abundance	2.25
Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts	2.75
Management	4.00
Bycatch	1.75
Final Score (average of criteria)	2.45
Color

Final Score	Color
2.60 - 4.00
2.20 - 2.59
1.80 - 2.19
1.40 - 1.79
0.00 - 1.39

Last updated September 22, 2006.

Life History

Core Points (only one selection allowed)

If a value for intrinsic rate of increase (‘r’) is known, assign the score below based on this value. If no r-value is available, assign the score below for the correct age at 50% maturity for females if specified, or for the correct value of growth rate ('k'). If no estimates of r, age at 50% maturity, or k are available, assign the score below based on maximum age.

1.00	Intrinsic rate of increase <0.05; OR age at 50% maturity >10 years; OR growth rate <0.15; OR maximum age >30 years.
2.00	Intrinsic rate of increase = 0.05-0.15; OR age at 50% maturity = 5-10 years; OR a growth rate = 0.16–0.30; OR maximum age = 11-30 years. Intrinsic rate of increase is unknown. Western Rock Lobsters first spawn between the ages of 5 and 6 and can live more than 20 years (Agnew et al. 2006; Saunders 2006).
3.00	Intrinsic rate of increase >0.16; OR age at 50% maturity = 1-5 years; OR growth rate >0.30; OR maximum age <11 years.

Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)

-0.25	Species has special behaviors that make it especially vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g., spawning aggregations; site fidelity; segregation by sex; migratory bottlenecks; unusual attraction to gear; etc.). Western Rock Lobsters regularly shed their exoskeleton as they grow. In November of their forth to fifth year, right before they mature, Western Rock Lobsters molt and then migrate en masse from shallow reef habitats to offshore breeding grounds (Caputi, pers. comm., 2006; Saunders 2006). Commercial catches of Western Rock Lobster peak during December, and largely comprise recently-molted lobsters, known as "whites". Although a minimum size limit is in place to prevent the capture of undersize lobsters, whites - which have not reproduced yet - are especially attracted to the traps. A second peak in catches occurs in March, following a molt in February. Lobster traps offer both food and protection for migrating, recently-molted Rock Lobsters (Caputi, pers. comm., 2006).
-0.25	Species has a strategy for sexual development that makes it especially vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g., age at 50% maturity >20 years; sequential hermaphrodites; extremely low fecundity).
-0.25	Species has a small or restricted range (e.g., endemism; numerous evolutionarily significant units; restricted to one coastline; e.g., American lobster; striped bass; endemic reef fishes). Forty-nine species of Spiny Lobsters (Family Palinuridae) exist worldwide (Moe 1991). This ranking focuses exclusively on the Western Rock Lobster, Panulirus cygnus. Western Rock Lobsters occur in shallow waters of the Indo-West Pacific Ocean, along the west coast of Australia. They are primarily found between the Northwest Cape and Hamelin Harbor, as well as some offshore islands (Saunders 2006).
-0.25	Species exhibits high natural population variability driven by broad–scale environmental change (e.g., El Nino; decadal oscillations). Broad-scale environmental changes strongly influence the abundance and distribution of Western Rock Lobsters. Western Rock Lobsters have a complex life history, characterized by several developmental stages, including an extended larval phase (the phyllosome) which is subject to prolonged transport by ocean currents. In its first year, the phyllosome passes through 11 larval stages, ending with a puerulus stage, which resembles a miniature lobster and drifts back to the coast and settles to the bottom. The puerulus lobster spends 2 to 3 years on the bottom while they slowly mature (Saunders 2006). The occurrence of El Nino and La Nina affects the frequency and intensity of low-pressure systems and the strength of the Leeuwin Current. The Leeuwin controls the delivery of late-stage lobsters to their coastal habitat when they metamorphose from their pelagic stages to their benthic juvenile forms. A positive relationship exists between the strength of the Leeuwin Current and puerulus larval settlement. Thus, the strength and direction of this current greatly influences recruitment of juveniles to the adult population of Western Rock Lobsters. Short-term fluctuations in abundance reflect the cyclical nature of puerulus settlement, which influence the legal-sized abundance of lobster three to four years later (Department of Fisheries 2005a; Western Australian Fishing Industry Council, Inc (WAFIC), 2006).

+0.25	Species does not have special behaviors that increase ease or population consequences of capture OR has special behaviors that make it less vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g., species is widely dispersed during spawning).
+0.25	Species has a strategy for sexual development that makes it especially resilient to fishing pressure (e.g., age at 50% maturity <1 year; extremely high fecundity). Western Rock Lobsters are highly fecund. Female lobsters produce 300,000 to 700,000 eggs at a time. The Male Western Rock Lobster attach a sperm-containing packet called a spermatophore onto the underside of the female, while the female prepares to spawn. The female then fertilizes her eggs with the spermatophore and retains the fertilized eggs on the underside of her abdomen until they hatch (Saunders 2006).
+0.25	Species is distributed over a very wide range (e.g., throughout an entire hemisphere or ocean basin; e.g., swordfish; tuna; Patagonian toothfish).
+0.25	Species does not exhibit high natural population variability driven by broad-scale environmental change (e.g., El Nino; decadal oscillations).

1.50	Points for Life History

Abundance

Core Points (only one selection allowed)

Compared to natural or un-fished level, the species population is:

1.00

Low: Abundance or biomass is <75% of BMSY or similar proxy (e.g., spawning potential ratio).

2.00

Medium: Abundance or biomass is 75–125% of BMSY or similar proxy; OR population is approaching or recovering from an overfished condition; OR adequate information on abundance or biomass is not available.

Abundance of Western Rock Lobster remains close to Maximum Sustainable Yield.

However, Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) of Western Rock Lobster, which describes the largest annual catch that can be taken under existing environmental conditions, is not specifically used as a measure of abundance for this species. Instead, fishery managers monitor the abundance of Western Rock Lobsters using a proxy of MSY; the annual commercial catch per unit effort (CPUE) data. CPUE data show that the population declined from the 1950s through the 1980s, likely due to heavy fishing pressure. This trend reversed in the early 1990s through a management-mediated reduction in fishing effort to 82% pot usage (Department of Fisheries 2005a). Subsequent reductions in fishing effort allowed the population to rebound to its 1970s level, as seen in the overall increase in the number of lobsters caught per trap since the early 1990s (Department of Fisheries 2005a).

3.00

High: Abundance or biomass is >125% of BMSY or similar proxy.

Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)

-0.25	The population is declining over a generational time scale (as indicated by biomass estimates or standardized CPUE). Abundance of breeding Rock Lobster females declined slightly from the early 1970s through the early 1990s. Recent improvements in fishing technology, such as deep water trap sets and the use of echo-sounders and GPS resulted in increased catches and a downward trend in population levels and egg production, as indicated by ongoing breeding population surveys (Department of Fisheries 2005a; WAFIC 2006). However, several fishing effort reductions in 1986, 1993, and 2005 increased abundance levels back to the levels recorded in the early 1970s. To ensure that the breeding population is maintained above acceptable levels, managment enforces a "decision-rule" framework which responds to periods of low abundance through reduced fishing effort (Caputi, pers. comm., 2006). Additionally, environmental conditions heavily influence the abundance of Western Rock Lobsters, resulting in regular, inter-annual fluctuations in population levels (Department of Fisheries 2005a). For these reasons, we chose not to subtract for this factor.
-0.25	Age, size or sex distribution is skewed relative to the natural condition (e.g., truncated size/age structure or anomalous sex distribution). Fishery managers protect female Rock Lobsters with minimum and maximum size limits; whereas males are only protected by a minimum size requirement (Department of Fisheries 2005a). Increased protection provided to breeding females has the potential to alter sex ratios among Western Rock Lobsters by increasing the number of older, larger females. However, recent studies indicate that the sex ratios of mature Western Rock Lobsters are not skewed, and nearly all breeding females mate each year. These findings are preliminary, and the studies are ongoing (Caputi, pers. comm., 2006). Therefore we chose to not subtract for this factor.
-0.25	Species is listed as “overfished” OR species is listed as “depleted”, “endangered”, or “threatened” by recognized national or international bodies. Western Rock Lobsters are not overfished.
-0.25	Current levels of abundance are likely to jeopardize the availability of food for other species or cause substantial change in the structure of the associated food web.

+0.25	The population is increasing over a generational time scale (as indicated by biomass estimates or standardized CPUE).
+0.25	Age, size or sex distribution is functionally normal. Although fishing pressure has reduced the number of older, larger individuals in the fishery, the sex ratio of Western Rock Lobster remains functionally normal (Caputi, pers. comm., 2006).
+0.25	Species is close to virgin biomass.
+0.25	Current levels of abundance provide adequate food for other predators or are not known to affect the structure of the associated food web.

2.25	Points for Abundance

Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts

Core Points (only one selection allowed)

Select the option that most accurately describes the effect of the fishing method upon the habitat that it affects.

1.00	The fishing method causes great damage to physical and biogenic habitats (e.g., cyanide; blasting; bottom trawling; dredging).
2.00	The fishing method does moderate damage to physical and biogenic habitats (e.g., bottom gillnets; traps and pots; bottom longlines). Fishers use baited pots to fish for Western Rock Lobster. Large numbers of traps in the fishery may have a cumulative impact on the environment; and lost or abandoned traps continue to fish indefinitely (Morgan and Chuenpagdee 2003).
3.00	The fishing method does little damage to physical or biogenic habitats (e.g., hand picking; hand raking; hook and line; pelagic long lines; mid-water trawl or gillnet; purse seines).

Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)

-0.25	Habitat for this species is so compromised from non-fishery impacts that the ability of the habitat to support this species is substantially reduced (e.g., dams; pollution; coastal development).
-0.25	Critical habitat areas (e.g., spawning areas) for this species are not protected by management using time/area closures, marine reserves, etc.
-0.25	No efforts are being made to minimize damage from existing gear types OR new or modified gear is increasing habitat damage (e.g., fitting trawls with roller rigs or rockhopping gear; more robust gear for deep-sea fisheries).
-0.25	If gear impacts are substantial, resilience of affected habitats is very slow (e.g., deep water corals; rocky bottoms).

+0.25	Habitat for this species remains robust and viable and is capable of supporting this species. The Western Rock Lobster primarily utilizes limestone reef habitats, which remain robust and capable of supporting this species (Caputi, pers. comm., 2006).
+0.25	Critical habitat areas (e.g., spawning areas) for this species are protected by management using time/area closures, marine reserves, etc. Several no-take areas exist within the fishery, however they are not of critical importance for Western Rock Lobsters. However, managers protect the important breeding grounds near the Abrolhos Islands with a restricted fishing season, limits on the number of boats allowed to fish in the area, and a reduced maximum size limit for females (105mm; Caputi, pers. comm., 2006).
+0.25	Gear innovations are being implemented over a majority of the fishing area to minimize damage from gear types OR no innovations necessary because gear effects are minimal.
+0.25	If gear impacts are substantial, resilience of affected habitats is fast (e.g., mud or sandy bottoms) OR gear effects are minimal. Fishers generally set pots on sandy areas around robust limestone reef habitats, frequently subject to swell and winter storms. For this reason, managers consider the habitat on which Rock Lobster fishing occurs to be highly resistant to damage from lobster potting (Department of Fisheries 2005a).

2.75	Points for Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts

Management

Core Points (only one selection allowed)

Select the option that most accurately describes the current management of the fisheries of this species.

1.00

Regulations are ineffective (e.g., illegal fishing or overfishing is occurring) OR the fishery is unregulated (i.e., no control rules are in effect).

2.00

Management measures are in place over a major portion over the species’ range but implementation has not met conservation goals OR management measures are in place but have not been in place long enough to determine if they are likely to achieve conservation and sustainability goals.

3.00

Substantial management measures are in place over a large portion of the species range and have demonstrated success in achieving conservation and sustainability goals.

In 2000, the Western Rock Lobster fishery of Australia became the first fishery in the world to be certified to the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)’s standard for a well-managed and sustainable fishery (MSC 2006). The Australian Department of Fisheries manages the Western Rock Lobster fishery in three designated zones: north and south zones and an offshore zone around the Abrolhos Islands (Department of Fisheries 2005a). Limited-entry management of the fishery began in 1963 (WAFIC 2005).

The Department of Fisheries limits the number of licenses and number, size, and type of pots allowed in the fishery (Department of Fisheries 2005a; WAFIC 2006). Currently, 594 boats actively fish for Western Rock Lobster using a total of 56,790 pots (WAFIC 2006). Fishery managers regulate fishing in each zone separately with effort and size restrictions and seasonal closures. They also prohibit fishers from keeping “berried” (i.e., females brooding fertilized eggs) and mature "setose" females, and limit the maximum size of females fishers can keep (Department of Fisheries 2005a). In the north and south zones, the fishing season opens November 15 and closes June 30 of the following year, while commercial fishing in the offshore Abrolhos Islands zone begins on March 15 and ends June 30 (Department of Fisheries 2005a).

Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)

-0.25	There is inadequate scientific monitoring of stock status, catch or fishing effort.
-0.25	Management does not explicitly address fishery effects on habitat, food webs, and ecosystems.
-0.25	This species is overfished and no recovery plan or an ineffective recovery plan is in place. Western Rock Lobsters are not overfished.
-0.25	Management has failed to reduce excess capacity in this fishery or implements subsidies that result in excess capacity in this fishery.

+0.25	There is adequate scientific monitoring, analysis and interpretation of stock status, catch and fishing effort. Management of the Western Rock Lobster fishery began in 1963. The catch and effort levels collected since this time provide a detailed history of the fishery. Additionally, a voluntary logbook program provides more comprehensive information on catch and effort data, which managers use to assess the fishery and determine population abundances. The Department of Fisheries monitors monthly post-larval (puerulus) Western Rock Lobster settlement, as it fluctuates under changing environmental conditions. This information allows fishery managers to determine future abundances of Rock Lobster and predict catches approximately three to four years in advance (Department of Fisheries 2005a; WAFIC 2006). An independent breeding population survey has been in effect since the early 1990s. Since its MSC certification in 2000, the Western Rock Lobster fishery received 7 surveillance audits and is currently undergoing a full assessment for re-certification in 2006 (Agnew et al. 2006).
+0.25	Management explicitly and effectively addresses fishery effects on habitat, food webs, and ecosystems. Beginning in 2004, the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation funded a research project investigating the ecosystem effects of Western Rock Lobster fishing in deep water (Department of Fisheries 2005a; Caputi, pers. comm., 2006). In 2005, the Western Rock Lobster Effects of Fishing on the Ecosystem Scientific Reference Group (SRG) convened by the Department of Fisheries and the Western Australia Fishing Industry Council met to address the ecological effects of fishing for Western Rock Lobsters (Department of Fisheries 2005b). The SRG discussed several ongoing and upcoming research projects investigating the ecological interactions between Rock Lobsters and their habitat as well as other species (Department of Fisheries 2005b). Ongoing research projects use tethered tow cameras, sediment-collecting devices, and commercial divers to determine the relationships between habitat and Western Rock Lobster abundance (Caputi, pers. comm., 2006).
+0.25	This species is overfished and there is a recovery plan (including benchmarks, timetables and methods to evaluate success) in place that is showing signs of success OR recovery plan is not needed. A recovery plan is not needed for Western Rock Lobsters.
+0.25	Management has taken action to control excess capacity or reduce subsidies that result in excess capacity OR no measures are necessary because fishery is not overcapitalized. In 1986 and 1993, the Department of Fisheries reduced the number of pots allowed in the fishery by 10 and 28%, respectively, with an additional reduction in 2005 (Department of Fisheries 2005a; WAFIC 2006). This reduction in capacity helped to successfully reverse the decline in catch levels that had started in the 1950s. During the 2003/4 fishing season, 549 vessels fished for Rock Lobster, slightly less than the 563 active boats during the previous season (Department of Fisheries 2005a). Also in 1993, fishery managers increased the minimum size limit from 76 to 77mm, allowing to allow a greater proportion of whites to reach their offshore breeding grounds, and introduced protection of mature female (setose) Rock Lobsters (Caputi, pers. comm.., 2006).

4.00	Points for Management

Bycatch

Core Points (only one selection allowed)

Select the option that most accurately describes the current level of bycatch and the consequences that result from fishing this species.

The term, "bycatch” used in this document excludes incidental catch of a species for which an adequate management framework exists.

The terms, “endangered, threatened, or protected,” used in this document refer to species status that is determined by national legislation such as the U.S. Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act (or another nation's equivalent), the IUCN Red List, or a credible scientific body such as the American Fisheries Society.

1.00

Bycatch in this fishery is high (>100% of targeted landings), OR regularly includes a “threatened, endangered or protected species.”

Bycatch of Australian Sea Lions pups is a problem for the Western Rock Lobster fishery. The pups get trapped and drown as they try to steal bait or Rock Lobsters from pots. Incidents occur predominantly in shallow waters (less than 20 meters) and within 20 miles of Sea Lion breeding colonies on the mid-west coast of Australia. Although fishers recorded no Sea Lion bycatch during the 2003/2004 fishing season, the fishery has historically killed an average of 3 Sea Lion pups per fishing season, with a high of 12 Sea Lions during the 1999/2000 fishing season. Found only in Australia and considered threatened by the Australian government (Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage 2006), the loss of even small numbers of pups per year is a problem because Australian Sea Lions are at a very low level of abundance. Currently, managers and fishery-independent scientists are exploring whether a Sea Lion Exclusion Device (SLED) will prevent future deaths of sea lions in the lobster pots. Widespread implementation of SLEDS in the fishery will likely take place during the 2006/7 fishing season (Department of Fisheries 2005a).

Bycatch in the Western Rock Lobster fishery also includes interactions with endangered sea turtles, including the Leatherback Turtle, listed as critically endangered and on IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN 2006). During the 2003/4 fishing season, five Leatherback Turtles became entangled in fishing gear, 3 of which were released alive. This amount is slightly higher than most previous years, when the fishery interacted with an average of 3 turtles per year (Department of Fisheries 2005a).

Reports of whale entanglements within the fishery are rare, but of some concern. Humpback Whales generally migrate through Western Rock Lobster fishing grounds during the fishery’s closed season. However, since 1989, zero to four whale entanglements have occurred each season. Four entanglements occurred during the 2003/4 fishing season (Department of Fisheries 2005a).

Bycatch in Western Rock Lobster fishery also includes octopus, which are generally caught in shallow waters (0-37 meters). During the 2003/4 commercial season, traps caught octopus at a rate of 0.028 octopuses per pot, or 270,220 octopuses, which reflects a 19.6% higher rate than the historical range (1985 through 2003) (Department of Fisheries 2005a). Fishers who incidentally catch octopi, for which a lucrative fishery exists in Australia, generally retain the octopi for sale (WAFIC 2006).

2.00

Bycatch in this fishery is moderate (10-99% of targeted landings) AND does not regularly include “threatened, endangered or protected species” OR level of bycatch is unknown.

3.00

Bycatch in this fishery is low (<10% of targeted landings) and does not regularly include "threatened, endangered or protected species."

Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)

-0.25	Bycatch in this fishery is a contributing factor to the decline of “threatened, endangered, or protected species" and no effective measures are being taken to reduce it.
-0.25	Bycatch of targeted or non-targeted species (e.g., undersize individuals) in this fishery is high and no measures are being taken to reduce it.
-0.25	Bycatch of this species (e.g., undersize individuals) in other fisheries is high OR bycatch of this species in other fisheries inhibits its recovery, and no measures are being taken to reduce it.
-0.25	The continued removal of the bycatch species contributes to its decline.

+0.25	Measures taken over a major portion of the species range have been shown to reduce bycatch of “threatened, endangered, or protected species” or bycatch rates are no longer deemed to affect the abundance of the “protected” bycatch species OR no measures needed because fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear). In 2003, in an effort to eliminate the mortality of Sea Lions in Western Rock Lobster pots, the Department of Fisheries and the Western Australian Fishing Industry Council established the Sea Lion Scientific Reference Group (Department of Fisheries 2006a;b). Research conducted by the group identified the successful use of Sea Lion Exclusion Devices (SLEDs) in preventing Sea Lions from entering Rock Lobster pots without any adverse impacts on the catch rates of legal size lobsters (Department of Fisheries 2006b). In July of 2006, the Department of Fisheries approved the mandatory use of SLEDs in all Rock Lobster pots within a designated zone, encompassing the distribution of young Sea Lions on the central west coast, for the 2006/2007 season and subsequent seasons to follow (Department of Fisheries 2006a).
+0.25	There is bycatch of targeted (e.g., undersize individuals) or non-targeted species in this fishery and measures (e.g., gear modifications) have been implemented that have been shown to reduce bycatch over a large portion of the species range OR no measures are needed because fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear). For over 30 years, the Western Rock Lobster fishery has undertaken an onboard commercial monitoring program, monitoring the abundance of undersize and mature females caught (and released) in the fishery, as well as the legal catch and bycatch species (Caputi, pers. comm., 2006). Additionally, all traps used in the fishery have at least 3 escape gaps, which allow undersize lobsters to escape (Caputi, pers. comm., 2006).
+0.25	Bycatch of this species in other fisheries is low OR bycatch of this species in other fisheries inhibits its recovery, but effective measures are being taken to reduce it over a large portion of the range. Bycatch of this species in other fisheries is low.
+0.25	The continued removal of the bycatch species in the targeted fishery has had or will likely have little or no impact on populations of the bycatch species OR there are no significant bycatch concerns because the fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear).

1.75	Points for Bycatch

References

* This ranking was reviewed and approved by Nick Caputi, the Supervising Scientist (Invertebrates) at the Department of Fisheries at the Western Australian Fisheries and Marine Research Laboratories in Australia.

Agnew, D., C. Grieve, P. Orr, G. Parkes, and N. Barker. 2006. Environmental Benefits Resulting from Certification Against MSC's Principles and Criteria for Sustainable Fishing. Final Report

Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage. 2006. EPBC Act List of Threatened Fauna. Available at: http://www.deh.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicthreatenedlist.pl?wanted=fauna#MAMMALS_VULNERABLE

Caputi, N. 2006. Personal Communication. Department of Fisheries.

Department of Fisheries. 2006a. Letter to license holders: Western Rock Lobster Fishery - Implementation of Sea Lion Exclusion Devices. July 28, 2006

Department of Fisheries. 2006b. Sea Lion Exclusion Devices Research Report for RLIAC 25th May 2006

Department of Fisheries. 2005. State of the Fisheries Report 2004/05. West Coast Bioregion. Commercial Fisheries: West Coast Rock Lobster Managed Fishery Status Report.

Department of Fisheries. 2005b. Western Rock Lobster Fishery Effects of Fishing on the Ecosystem Scientific Reference Group. Chairman’s Report No. 3, February 2005.

Department of Fisheries. 2005c. Annual Report to Parliament. West Coast Rock Lobster Fishery. Available at: http://www.fish.wa.gov.au/docs/ar/2005/oroutput/oroutput02.php

Marine Stewardship Council. 2006. Certified Fisheries: Western Rock Lobster. Available at: http://eng.msc.org/

Morgan, L.E. and R. Chuenpagdee. 2003. Shifting Gears: Addressing the Collateral Impacts of Fishing Methods in U.S. Waters. Pew Science Series.

Polovina, J. 2005. Climate Variation, Regime Shifts, and Implications for Sustainable Fisheries. Bulletin of Marine Science; 76(2): 233-244

Saunders, D. 2004. "Panulirus cygnus". Animal Diversity Web. Accessed June 18, 2006 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Panulirus_cygnus.html

The World Conservation Union (IUCN). 2006. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Available at: http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/6494/all

Western Australian Fishing Industry Council, Inc. (WAFIC). 2006. Western Rock Lobster. Available at: http://www.wafic.com.au/species/lobsters/overview.phtml