An estimate of intrinsic rate of increase (r) was not available. Fifty percent of male Sablefish are mature at 5 years of age; females mature slightly later, with fifty percent mature by 6.5 years. Sablefish have a long life span. The oldest recorded fish in Alaska was 94 years. Fish older than 40 years of age are found regularly (Sigler et al. 2003).

Sablefish are found in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. Their range extends from the Bering Sea to Northern Mexico (Sigler et al. 2003). We consider this to be a medium-size range. Thus, no points were subtracted or added for this factor.

The number of fish in the Sablefish population that survive to join the fishing-size population ("recruitment") is related to environmental conditions, specifically water temperature and the direction of winter currents. In years with above average sea surface temperatures and northerly drift, an above average number of fish survive to join the fishing-age population. For example, during years when El Nino events occurred and when winter northeast Pacific pressure index values were high, year classes of Alaskan Sablefish as well as other groundfish species, were strong. The largest year classes of Sablefish (1977-1978 and 1980-1981) were found following the 1976/1977 North Pacific regime shift when the population size of Sablefish was low. The fact that Sablefish can produce large year classes when the population is at a low level of abundance shows that Sablefish can take advantage of favorable environmental conditions (Sigler et al. 2003).

There are two populations of Sablefish. The northern population inhabits waters of northern British Columbia and Alaska; the southern population extends from California waters north to southern British Columbia. Off southwest Vancouver Island and northwest Washington, the two populations mix. Because the vast majority of Sablefish are caught in Alaska, this evaluation is focused on the northern population. Within Alaskan waters, fishery managers consider Sablefish to be a single population (Sigler et al. 2003).

The most recent population assessment projected that the size of the breeding population in 2004 ("spawning biomass") to be 40% of unfished levels and 99.5% of the long-term average population size expected when an average number of young fish are joining the spawning population and fishers are catching fish at the maximum level allowed. Fishery scientists consider the current population size to be moderate (Sigler et al. 2003).

Alaska Sablefish are not classified as overfished. And they are not considered to be approaching an overfished condition (NMFS 2004b).

Strong year classes of Sablefish in the late 1950s and 1960s led to increases in abundance during the mid-1960s. Heavy fishing pressure followed in the 1970s, however, causing a decline in abundance from the all time peak in 1972 when catches reached 53,080 mt. Strong year classes in the late 1970s allowed the population to recover and abundance reached a second peak in 1988 (about 70% of 1972 levels). As the strong year classes died off, however, abundance decreased again. By 2000, catches were only 42% of the 1988 peak. Most recently, in most areas, Sablefish in Alaska have increased in abundance again. Abundance in 2003 was 10% higher than in 2000. The combination of conservative catch limits in recent years and a strong 1997 year class are the cause for the increase.

However, no points were added here because abundance is projected to decrease in the near future. In addition, in the East Yakutat/Southeast area, which is part of the main spawning area in central and eastern Gulf of Alaska, Sablefish have shown a long-term decline. Fishery scientists feel that this decline is cause for serious concern (Sigler et al. 2003).

The Sablefish population is comprised of fish of a wide variety of ages. Although twenty-five percent of the population is made up of the 1997 year class, this does not represent an unhealthy population. Sablefish are naturally characterized by periodic strong year classes, which means that even in an unfished population, one age group would include a larger number of fish than other age groups. There is a slight imbalance in the current sex ratio, however, not outside the range of normal expectations for Sablefish populations (Sigler, Pers. Comm., 2005). Consequently, fishery scientists consider the age, size, and sex distributions of the Sablefish to be healthy.

In Alaska, Sablefish are caught primarily by bottom longline fisheries (also called "hook and line"), but are also caught in the trawl fishery. The trawl fishery occassionally targets Sablefish, but largely aims for other groundfish species such as rockfish (NPFMC 2002). In the Gulf of Alaska, where most Sablefish are caught, the vast majority of Sablefish catches are allocated to the longline fishery (80% in the Western and Central Gulf of Alaska and 95% in the Eastern Gulf of Alaska), with the remainder of the quota allocated to the trawl fishery. In the eastern Bering Sea, 50% of the catches are allocated to fixed gear fisheries (including longline) and 50% to trawl fisheries. The majority of the Aleutian Islands quota is allocated to fixed gear fisheries (75%), with the remaining portion of the quota allocated to the trawl fishery. Sablefish are also caught as bycatch in trawl fisheries that are targeting rockfish and flatfish (Sigler et al. 2003).

There are no known critical habitat areas for Sablefish (Sigler, Pers. Comm., 2005). Thus, no points were added or subtracted for this factor.

Sablefish inhabit deep waters and are typically found at depths greater than 200 meters. Observation data from a submersible show Sablefish within one meter of the bottom of the ocean. Sablefish often use gullies and deep fjords as habitat. Spawning, however, occurs higher in the water column, at depth of 300 to 500 meters. And juveniles will spend their first years in relatively shallow nearshore areas (NMFS 2004a).

Although there has been little research investigating the affect of longline gear on bottom habitat, the impacts are assumed to be minimal. However, research on habitat effects of fishing is in its early stages and the condition of Sablefish habitat is unknown.

Following overexploitation of Sablefish by foreign vessels fishing in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska in the 1960s and early 1970s, Sablefish are now tightly managed by state and U.S. federal agencies in Alaska. The vast majority of the fishery occurs in U.S. federal waters off Alaska. Alaska Sablefish are currently managed under Amendment 20 to the Gulf of Alaska Fishery Management Plan (FMP) and Amendment 15 to the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands Fishery Management Plan (FMP). Fishery managers for Sablefish in Alaska have a history of proactive management. When abundance declined in the 1970s, fishery managers implemented substantial restrictions on allowable catches from 1978 to 1985 (Sigler et al. 2004). In an effort not to repeat the mistake of overexploitation that occurred in the late 1970s, fishery managers now determine the level of allowable catch that will most likely avoid the low levels of abundance seen in 1979 (NMFS 2004a).

In 1995, under Amendment 15, an Individual Fishery Quotas (IFQ) system was implemented for fixed gear fisheries (e.g. hook and line or longline vessels). Under this system, individuals holding a quota share receive an annual allocation of a portion of the total allowable catches allowed. This allocation authorizes the quota holder to fish for Sablefish. The IFQ program has demonstrated a number of improvements in the fishery including a decrease in the total number of quota shareholders, reduced bycatch, increased safety, reduced gear conflicts, reduced fishing mortality from lost gear, increased product quality, reduced competition for fishing grounds, an increase in the catch rate by 1.8 times, and a decrease in catches of immature fish and a resulting increase of spawning biomass per recruit (NMFS 2004a).

A number of other regulations are in place for Sablefish fisheries in both the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands Areas. These regulations include: permits, an IFQ program, catch quotas, seasons, gear restrictions, closed waters, bycatch limits and rates, allocations, regulatory areas, record keeping and reporting requirements, and observer monitoring (NPFMC 2000 and 2001).

For fisheries targeting Sablefish (i.e. at least 50% of the catch is comprised of Sablefish), data on catches and discards are collected and recorded in logbooks and by observers. The largest of the fishing vessels (over 125 feet in length) are required by fishery managers to have observer coverage 100% of the time; smaller vessels (60 to 125 feet) must carry observers 30% of the time. In addition, data on catch, effort, age, length, weight, and maturity have been collected annually since 1978 during longline surveys and triennially since 1979 during trawl surveys. Surface gillnet surveys are also conducted to monitor trends in recruitment (Sigler et al. 2003). Fishery biologists use an age-structured model that includes fishery and survey catch data as well as age and length composition to assess the Alaska Sablefish population (NMFS 2004a). Data and monitoring are considered high quality, especially compared to many other fisheries (Sigler, Pers. Comm., 2005).

Alaska Sablefish are not classified as overfished by the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS 2004b). Consequently, a recovery plan is not needed.

In 1995 fishery managers shifted the Sablefish fishery from operating as an open access fishery, which did not limit the number of fishers participating in the fishery, to one that is managed under an Individual Fishery Quota (IFQ) system. Under the IFQ system, catching efficiency has increased by 1.8 times, and the number of hooks deployed has decreased (Sigler et al. 2003). In addition, catches of immature fish have decreased, which increased the potential for Sablefish to reproduce by nine percent (NMFS 2004a).

Since 1995, when fishery managers implemented the Individual Fishery Quota (IFQ) management system, bycatch has decreased in the Sablefish longline fishery. Fishers now have more time to catch their alloted amount of Sablefish and so they no longer race to catch the overall quota (known as "derby" fishing), as they did in previous years. In addition, fishers also keep a larger proportion of intermediate value, non-targeted catch, such as rockfish. Before the implementation of the IFQ system, these lower value species were largely discarded (Sigler, Pers. Comm., 2005).

Sablefish longline fisheries still, however, have some bycatch. During the last five years, an average of 3.7% of total catches by longline fisheries were discarded Sablefish . Discards of Sablefish are also higher in the groundfish trawl fisheries, representing 29.8% of total catches (Sigler et al. 2003). Trawl fisheries have limits on the amount of Sablefish they can catch and keep. If trawl fishers exceed their limit, the fish must be discarded. Unlike with longline fisheries, where discarded Sablefish usually survive if carefully released, Sablefish discarded from trawl vessels usually die (Sigler, Pers. Comm., 2005).

Bycatch in the fishery also includes catches of unwanted ("non-targeted") species. For example, the Sablefish longline fishery accounts for an average of 21% of all catches of Spiny Dogfish throughout Alaska and 66% of other shark species in this state. Bycatch of grenadiers is highest in the Sablefish fishery, with 71% of catches taken in this fishery. Because there is no market for grenadiers, catches of these species are discarded (Sigler et al. 2003).

There is some bycatch of seabirds in the Sablefish longline fishery Bycatch of three species of seabirds is of particular concern due to their population status: the Short-tailed Albatross (Phoebastria albatrus) and Laysan Albatross (Phoebastria immutabilis), both classified as vulnerable to extinction by the IUCN, and the Black-footed Albatross, classified as endangered by the IUCN (IUCN 2004). The Short-tailed Albatross is also classified as endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2005). From 1993 to 2003 the observed annual take of Short-tailed Albatross in the Gulf of Alaska longline fishery (where the Sablefish fishery is concentrated) was zero. In contrast, longline fisheries targeting Pacific Cod in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands areas had an annual take of three birds during this time period. Catches of Laysan and Black-footed Albatrosses were higher in all fisheries; in 2002, approximately 150 Laysan Albatrosses were observed caught in all Alaska fisheries. Among all Alaska fisheries, the Gulf of Alaska longline fisheries (including those targeting Sablefish) catch the most Black-footed Albatrosses. Incidental catches of Black-footed Albatrosses are totaled 700 in 1996, but have been declining since then (NPFMC 2004).

Bycatch of seabirds, however, is declining in the Sablefish fishery. From 1997 to 2002, the Sablefish longline fishery accounted for an average of 11% of the total catch of birds in Alaska. In 2002, catches of all seabirds were lower than during the previous years. In 2002, the Sablefish fishery accounted for only 5% of seabird takes in all Alaska fisheries. The reduction of bycatch of seabirds may be due to efforts by the longline fleet such as fishermen using seabird bycatch reduction measures. However, other factors could be responsible for the decline (NPFMC 2004).

The Sablefish fishery catches fewer seabirds than Alaska's freezer longline fishery that targets Pacific Cod. The Pacific Cod fishery is a more industrial scale fishery that catches 80% of the total takes of seabirds in Alaska. In that fishery more birds are caught because a greater number of hooks are deployed in the water compared to the Sablefish fishery. In addition, the Pacific Cod fishery processes catches at sea. Seabirds get hooked on these lines when they try to steal bait, or become entangled as they try to take wastes thrown overboard as fish are processed (Fitzgerald, Pers. Comm., 2005).

There are some interactions between commercial fisheries in Alaska and marine mammals, which are protected in the United States under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. From 1990 to 1999 the estimated mortality of Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) among the six commercial fisheries observed in Alaska (including the Sablefish longline fisheries) was 14 animals. This represents an annual mortality level of 1.4. Killer whales are not classified as depleted under the Marine Mammal Protection Act, or classified as endangered or threatened under the Endangered Species Act. Because interactions with Killer Whales are spread across all observed fisheries and Killer Whales are not an endangered or threatened species, no points were deducted for this factor.

In the Gulf of Alaska Sablefish longline fishery, observers document instances of Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus) feeding off longline gear. Observers have also documented a few occasions in which fishers have used seal bombs to deter Sperm Whales to feeding off the lines. Observer data on interactions between Sperm Whales in Alaska and commercial fisheries throughout the area (not exclusively the Sablefish fishery) show that between 1997 and 2001 one animal was observed to be killed by fishing gear. And a total of three animals are estimated to have been killed. Because an estimate of the population size of Sperm Whales in unavailable, it is unknown whether the level of human-caused mortality or injury is significant to the health of the population (Angliss and Lodge 2004). Consequently, no points were deducted for this factor.

Since 1989 the National Marine Fisheries Service North Pacific Groundfish Observer Program has documented unintentional catches (known as "incidental take") of seabirds in Alaska's groundfish fisheries. Among all the hook-and-line groundfish fisheries in Alaska, an estimated 15,700 seabirds were killed annually between 1993 and 1999, 60% of which were the most abundant species in Alaska, the Northern Fulmar (Fulmaris glacialis). However, the major concern in implementing bycatch reduction measures is catch of endangered Short-tailed Albatross (Phoebastria albatrus). Since 2000, there have been substantial declines in the number of seabirds caught. For example, in the Bering Sea/Aleutian Islands areas, the average annual estimate of seabirds caught dropped from 18,000 birds to less than 4,000 in 2002. And in the Gulf of Alaska, the total number of seabirds caught declined from 750 birds to less than 300 in 2002. It's possible that the decrease in the bycatch rate in 2002 is in part due to fishermen becoming more skilled and diligent in using seabird avoidance measures.

Seabird avoidance measures apply to fishermen in the Sablefish fishery. These measures include, but are not limited to, use of at least two paired streamers for large vessels, and other fishing gear modifications such as adding weights to groundlines, using streamer lines, and other methods of distracting birds away from baited hooks while gear is being set (NOAA 2004).

The longline fishery, which accounts for 88% of the total Sablefish catch, mostly catches medium and large-size fish. These fish are predominantly mature. In contrast, the trawl fishery catches small and medium size fish. Catching these juveniles reduces the number of fish that survive to reproduce (Sigler et al. 2003). Other than regulations in place to reduce catches of seabirds (see below), there are no regulations in place to reduce bycatch of other non-targeted species such as sharks and grenadiers. However, the Individual Fishery Quota management system provides an incentive for fishers to retain catches of intermediate value species, rather than discarding them (Sigler, Pers. Comm., 2005). For example, the switch of the Sablefish fishery from open access to an Individual Fishery Quota (IFQ) system has decreased catches of immature fish. Under the IFQ system, the fishery operates at a slower pace and fishers have an incentive to maximize the value of their catch. By increasing catch efficiency the number of hooks deployed in the fishery has declined, which also has the effect of lowering the amount of bycatch (Sigler et al. 2003).

Discards of Sablefish caught in other fisheries is higher than the discards in the directed Alaska-wide longline Sablefish fishery. While discards of Sablefish in the Sablefish fishery were less than 5% of total catch during 1995-2000, discards of Sablefish accounted for 31% of Sablefish catches in the BSAI Greenland Turbot fishery, 41.4% of the BSAI Pacific Cod longline fishery, 17.4% of the rockfish trawl fishery, and 42.1% of the flatfish trawl fishery. The Sablefish Individual Fishery Quota (IFQ) program and the Observer program, have helped reduce Sablefish bycatch and discards. Under this program, fishers who hold a quota for Sablefish are able to keep their catch, rather than being forced to discard it.