Wahoo (U.S. Atlantic)

Acanthocybium solandri

Sometimes known as Ocean Barracuda, Ono or Pacific Kingfish.

This species is wild-caught.

Summary

Wahoo are found throughout the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans and are prized by recreational fishers for their fighting behavior and by commercial fishers for the high price they bring at fish houses. Wahoo do not support a directed commercial fishery; instead, they are incidentally captured in small numbers in other fisheries. Managers in the eastern US recently implemented a precautionary plan to prevent future commercial fisheries that target Wahoo from developing.

These fish contain levels of mercury or PCBs that may pose a health risk to adults and children. Please refer to www.EnvironmentalDefense.org/seafood for more details.

Criterion	Points
Life History	3.75
Abundance	2.00
Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts	4.00
Management	2.00
Bycatch	2.75
Final Score (average of criteria)	2.90
Color

Final Score	Color
2.60 - 4.00
2.20 - 2.59
1.80 - 2.19
1.40 - 1.79
0.00 - 1.39

Last updated January 9, 2008.

Life History

Core Points (only one selection allowed)

If a value for intrinsic rate of increase (‘r’) is known, assign the score below based on this value. If no r-value is available, assign the score below for the correct age at 50% maturity for females if specified, or for the correct value of growth rate ('k'). If no estimates of r, age at 50% maturity, or k are available, assign the score below based on maximum age.

1.00	Intrinsic rate of increase <0.05; OR age at 50% maturity >10 years; OR growth rate <0.15; OR maximum age >30 years.
2.00	Intrinsic rate of increase = 0.05-0.15; OR age at 50% maturity = 5-10 years; OR a growth rate = 0.16–0.30; OR maximum age = 11-30 years.
3.00	Intrinsic rate of increase >0.16; OR age at 50% maturity = 1-5 years; OR growth rate >0.30; OR maximum age <11 years. Intrinsic rate of increase is unknown. Wahoo mature at approximately two years of age. Growth rate is estimated to be 0.152 (North Carolina) to 0.37 (St. Lucia). Maximum age of Wahoo is unknown, but they live at least 5 years (SAFMC 2003a).

Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)

-0.25	Species has special behaviors that make it especially vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g., spawning aggregations; site fidelity; segregation by sex; migratory bottlenecks; unusual attraction to gear; etc.).
-0.25	Species has a strategy for sexual development that makes it especially vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g., age at 50% maturity >20 years; sequential hermaphrodites; extremely low fecundity).
-0.25	Species has a small or restricted range (e.g., endemism; numerous evolutionarily significant units; restricted to one coastline; e.g., American lobster; striped bass; endemic reef fishes).
-0.25	Species exhibits high natural population variability driven by broad–scale environmental change (e.g., El Nino; decadal oscillations).

+0.25	Species does not have special behaviors that increase ease or population consequences of capture OR has special behaviors that make it less vulnerable to fishing pressure (e.g., species is widely dispersed during spawning). Wahoo do not form large, compact schools that are easily exploited by fishers, but, instead, travel in small groups of 2 to 20 individuals (SWFSC 2001).
+0.25	Species has a strategy for sexual development that makes it especially resilient to fishing pressure (e.g., age at 50% maturity <1 year; extremely high fecundity). Wahoo are extremely fecund, producing from 560,000 to 45 million eggs (SAFMC 2003a). They are thought to spawn year-round in the tropics and seasonally in the subtropics (SWFSC 2001).
+0.25	Species is distributed over a very wide range (e.g., throughout an entire hemisphere or ocean basin; e.g., swordfish; tuna; Patagonian toothfish). Wahoo is an oceanic, pelagic fish that is distributed throughout the world's tropical and subtropical waters (SAFMC 2003a).
+0.25	Species does not exhibit high natural population variability driven by broad-scale environmental change (e.g., El Nino; decadal oscillations).

3.75	Points for Life History

Abundance

Core Points (only one selection allowed)

Compared to natural or un-fished level, the species population is:

1.00	Low: Abundance or biomass is <75% of BMSY or similar proxy (e.g., spawning potential ratio).
2.00	Medium: Abundance or biomass is 75–125% of BMSY or similar proxy; OR population is approaching or recovering from an overfished condition; OR adequate information on abundance or biomass is not available. It is unknown whether Wahoo in the Atlantic constitute one or several populations. There has been no comprehensive assessment of Wahoo, and so the status of the population(s) is unknown. Managers have set the MSY for Wahoo in the US Atlantic at 1.41 to 1.62 million pounds based on catch history in Atlantic, U.S. Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico fisheries, not on robust biomass estimates (SAMFC 2003a). This proxy MSY was calculated from the range of the 5 to 10 year median catch history ending in 1999, which is a poor substitute for a Bmsy based on biomass data (SAFMC 2003a). Clearly, not enough is known about this species' population structure and abundance, and attention to these matters is warranted.
3.00	High: Abundance or biomass is >125% of BMSY or similar proxy.

Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)

-0.25	The population is declining over a generational time scale (as indicated by biomass estimates or standardized CPUE).
-0.25	Age, size or sex distribution is skewed relative to the natural condition (e.g., truncated size/age structure or anomalous sex distribution).
-0.25	Species is listed as “overfished” OR species is listed as “depleted”, “endangered”, or “threatened” by recognized national or international bodies. This species is not overfished.
-0.25	Current levels of abundance are likely to jeopardize the availability of food for other species or cause substantial change in the structure of the associated food web.

+0.25	The population is increasing over a generational time scale (as indicated by biomass estimates or standardized CPUE). Landings of Wahoo in the Atlantic have increased over the last 30 years (SAFMC 2003a), however, this increase is likely due to increased fishing effort for Wahoo rather than increased abundance.
+0.25	Age, size or sex distribution is functionally normal.
+0.25	Species is close to virgin biomass.
+0.25	Current levels of abundance provide adequate food for other predators or are not known to affect the structure of the associated food web.

2.00	Points for Abundance

Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts

Core Points (only one selection allowed)

Select the option that most accurately describes the effect of the fishing method upon the habitat that it affects.

1.00	The fishing method causes great damage to physical and biogenic habitats (e.g., cyanide; blasting; bottom trawling; dredging).
2.00	The fishing method does moderate damage to physical and biogenic habitats (e.g., bottom gillnets; traps and pots; bottom longlines).
3.00	The fishing method does little damage to physical or biogenic habitats (e.g., hand picking; hand raking; hook and line; pelagic long lines; mid-water trawl or gillnet; purse seines). There are no directed fisheries for Wahoo. Instead, they are caught incidentally in fisheries targeting other pelagic species, such as the Yellowfin Tuna troll fishery (L. Daniel, pers. comm., 11/9/2004). This gear type does little damage to habitats.

Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)

-0.25	Habitat for this species is so compromised from non-fishery impacts that the ability of the habitat to support this species is substantially reduced (e.g., dams; pollution; coastal development).
-0.25	Critical habitat areas (e.g., spawning areas) for this species are not protected by management using time/area closures, marine reserves, etc.
-0.25	No efforts are being made to minimize damage from existing gear types OR new or modified gear is increasing habitat damage (e.g., fitting trawls with roller rigs or rockhopping gear; more robust gear for deep-sea fisheries).
-0.25	If gear impacts are substantial, resilience of affected habitats is very slow (e.g., deep water corals; rocky bottoms).

+0.25	Habitat for this species remains robust and viable and is capable of supporting this species. There is no indication that the pelagic oceanic waters Wahoo inhabit are degraded and incapable of supporting Wahoo.
+0.25	Critical habitat areas (e.g., spawning areas) for this species are protected by management using time/area closures, marine reserves, etc. Managers have taken steps to protect floating Sargassum seaweed, which has been designated as Essential Fish Habitat (EFH) for Wahoo. The 2003 Fishery Management Plan for Pelagic Sargassum Habitat of the South Atlantic Region strictly limits the commercial harvest of the floating seaweed in the South Atlantic (SAFMC 2003b). The Gulf Stream, Charleston Gyre, and Florida Current have also been identified as EFH for Wahoo (SAFMC 2003a). Areas of upwelling on the east U.S. coast near Charleston and the Florida Keys are probably important spawning/larval retention habitats for Wahoo. These areas, along with several others, were designated Essential Fish Habitat-Areas of Particular Concern for Wahoo by previous SAFMC actions (SAFMC 2003a).
+0.25	Gear innovations are being implemented over a majority of the fishing area to minimize damage from gear types OR no innovations necessary because gear effects are minimal. Gear effects from this fishery are likely to be minimal.
+0.25	If gear impacts are substantial, resilience of affected habitats is fast (e.g., mud or sandy bottoms) OR gear effects are minimal. Gear effects from this fishery are likely to be minimal.

4.00	Points for Habitat Quality and Fishing Gear Impacts

Management

Core Points (only one selection allowed)

Select the option that most accurately describes the current management of the fisheries of this species.

1.00

Regulations are ineffective (e.g., illegal fishing or overfishing is occurring) OR the fishery is unregulated (i.e., no control rules are in effect).

2.00

Management measures are in place over a major portion over the species’ range but implementation has not met conservation goals OR management measures are in place but have not been in place long enough to determine if they are likely to achieve conservation and sustainability goals.

In the mid-1990s, managers at the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (SAFMC) grew concerned when longline boats that traditionally targeted Tunas and Swordfish started landing large quantities of Mahimahi. The SAFMC recognized the opportunity to develop a precautionary management plan for both Mahimahi and Wahoo. In cooperation with the Mid-Atlantic and New England FMCs, the SAFMC developed a plan to prevent commercial fisheries for Mahimahi and Wahoo from developing further. The 2003 FMP for the Dolphin and Wahoo Fishery of the Atlantic (Mahimahi is often called Dolphin in the eastern US) installed commercial and recreational catch limits and gear limitations.

Recreational fisheries capture > 90% of Wahoo landed in South and Mid-Atlantic waters. Adequate managment of the recreational fisheries for this species, therefore, is critical to the successful management of the commercial fishery. There is a recreational bag limit of 2 wahoo per day per person set now in the Atlantic EEZ (SAFMC 2003a).

Wahoo are generally difficult to catch, which is why they do not support directed fisheries. Commercial and recreational fishers rarely land Wahoo in large numbers because they travel in small groups and bite through most fishing gear. Managers included Wahoo in the 2003 FMP as a precautionary measure, and the likelihood of Wahoo becoming overfished with these managment measures in place is low (L. Daniel, pers. comm., 11/9/2004).

Unfortunately, the 2003 FMP only manages Wahoo fisheries in waters from New York to eastern Florida. It does not manage Wahoo fisheries in the Gulf of Mexico or the U.S. Caribbean, where >60% of annual Wahoo commercial landings are taken (SAFMC 2003a). Managers in the Gulf of Mexico and U.S. Caribbean are considering developing FMPs or a joint FMP for the Wahoo fisheries in their regions.

To account for the South Atlantic management plan, as well as the lack of a management plan in the Gulf of Mexico, we chose to award the medium score of 2.00 points here.

3.00

Substantial management measures are in place over a large portion of the species range and have demonstrated success in achieving conservation and sustainability goals.

Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)

-0.25	There is inadequate scientific monitoring of stock status, catch or fishing effort. A population assessment of Wahoo in US Atlantic waters is needed. Currently, the MSY of Wahoo is based on catches from previous years, not on the size and age distribution of the population and fishing mortality. Population data also need to be collected in the Gulf of Mexico and U.S. Caribbean, where the Wahoo fisheries currently are not managed (SAFMC 2003a).
-0.25	Management does not explicitly address fishery effects on habitat, food webs, and ecosystems.
-0.25	This species is overfished and no recovery plan or an ineffective recovery plan is in place. This species is not overfished.
-0.25	Management has failed to reduce excess capacity in this fishery or implements subsidies that result in excess capacity in this fishery.

+0.25	There is adequate scientific monitoring, analysis and interpretation of stock status, catch and fishing effort.
+0.25	Management explicitly and effectively addresses fishery effects on habitat, food webs, and ecosystems.
+0.25	This species is overfished and there is a recovery plan (including benchmarks, timetables and methods to evaluate success) in place that is showing signs of success OR recovery plan is not needed. A recovery plan is not needed, because Wahoo are not overfished.
+0.25	Management has taken action to control excess capacity or reduce subsidies that result in excess capacity OR no measures are necessary because fishery is not overcapitalized.

2.00	Points for Management

Bycatch

Core Points (only one selection allowed)

Select the option that most accurately describes the current level of bycatch and the consequences that result from fishing this species.

The term, "bycatch” used in this document excludes incidental catch of a species for which an adequate management framework exists.

The terms, “endangered, threatened, or protected,” used in this document refer to species status that is determined by national legislation such as the U.S. Endangered Species Act, the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act (or another nation's equivalent), the IUCN Red List, or a credible scientific body such as the American Fisheries Society.

1.00	Bycatch in this fishery is high (>100% of targeted landings), OR regularly includes a “threatened, endangered or protected species.”
2.00	Bycatch in this fishery is moderate (10-99% of targeted landings) AND does not regularly include “threatened, endangered or protected species” OR level of bycatch is unknown.
3.00	Bycatch in this fishery is low (<10% of targeted landings) and does not regularly include "threatened, endangered or protected species." Wahoo are incidentally captured in other fisheries. On the east coast, they are often landed by Yellowfin Tuna troll fisheries, which also catch Mahimahi, Blackfin Skipjack, and False Albacore Tuna, Atlantic Bonita, and King Mackerel incidentally. Bycatch in the fishery includes Sailfish and White and Blue Marlin, but in low numbers (Daniel, L., pers. comm., 11/10/04).

Points of Adjustment (multiple selections allowed)

-0.25	Bycatch in this fishery is a contributing factor to the decline of “threatened, endangered, or protected species" and no effective measures are being taken to reduce it.
-0.25	Bycatch of targeted or non-targeted species (e.g., undersize individuals) in this fishery is high and no measures are being taken to reduce it.
-0.25	Bycatch of this species (e.g., undersize individuals) in other fisheries is high OR bycatch of this species in other fisheries inhibits its recovery, and no measures are being taken to reduce it.
-0.25	The continued removal of the bycatch species contributes to its decline. Wahoo are captured in Yellowfin Tuna troll fisheries that also capture overfished Highly Migratory Species and their juveniles, such as Atlantic Blue Marlin, White Marlin, and Sailfish (Daniel, L., pers. comm., 11/10/04; SAFMC 2003a). Such bycatch mortality may impair the recovery of these overfished species. For example, Yellowfin Tuna troll fisheries in the Atlantic are a source of incidental landings of White Marlin. White Marlin are not listed as threatened or endangered (although there was a petition for listing), but they are severely overfished and declining (ICCAT 2004).

+0.25	Measures taken over a major portion of the species range have been shown to reduce bycatch of “threatened, endangered, or protected species” or bycatch rates are no longer deemed to affect the abundance of the “protected” bycatch species OR no measures needed because fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear).
+0.25	There is bycatch of targeted (e.g., undersize individuals) or non-targeted species in this fishery and measures (e.g., gear modifications) have been implemented that have been shown to reduce bycatch over a large portion of the species range OR no measures are needed because fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear).
+0.25	Bycatch of this species in other fisheries is low OR bycatch of this species in other fisheries inhibits its recovery, but effective measures are being taken to reduce it over a large portion of the range.
+0.25	The continued removal of the bycatch species in the targeted fishery has had or will likely have little or no impact on populations of the bycatch species OR there are no significant bycatch concerns because the fishery is highly selective (e.g., harpoon; spear).

2.75	Points for Bycatch

References

Daniel, L. North Carolina Department of Fish and Wildlife. 11/10/2004. Personal communication.

International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT). 2004. Report for biennial period, 2002-03. Part II (2003)-vol.2. Madrid, Spain.

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). June 2001. Endangered Species Act, Section 7: Consultation on Reinitiation of Consultation on the Atlantic Highly Migratory Species Fishery Management Plan and its Associated Fisheries. Biological Opinion.

NMFS. June 2000. Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement. Regulatory Amendment 1 to the Atlantic Tunas, Swordfish, and Sharks Fishery Management Plan.

NMFS. April 2004. List of Fisheries for 2004. Federal Register 6(153): 48416-48423.

South Atlantic Fishery Management Council (SAFMC). January 2003a. Fishery Management Plan for the Dolphin and Wahoo Fishery of the Atlantic.

SAFMC. 2003b. Fishery Management Plan for Pelagic Sargassum Habitat of the South Atlantic Region.

Southwest Fisheries Science Center (SWFSC). 2001. Final Environmental Impact Statement: Pelagic Fisheries of the Western Pacific Region. Prepared by: URS Corporation, Honolulu, HI. Accessed on 10/6/2004 at: http://swr.nmfs.noaa.gov/pio/eisdocs.htm.