Intrinsic rate of increase for is unknown. Most male Monkfish reach sexual maturity at 4 years of age; females are mature by age 5 (NEFSC 1999). Growth rate (K) is 0.06-0.1 (Fishbase 2004). Maximum age is 15-20 years (NEFMC 2004).

Little is known about the behaviors of Monkfish. Consequently, we neither add nor subtract for this criterion.

Monkfish are found in the Atlantic Ocean from the southern and eastern portions of the Grand Banks and northern Gulf of St. Lawrence to the east coast of Florida. Typically, however, they're found north of North Carolina (NEFSC 1999). We consider this a small range.

Monkfish are managed in two separate areas: the Northern Fishery Management Area (NFMA), which extends from Maine to Massachusetts, and the Southern Fishery Management Area (SFMA), which includes areas south of there. Both populations were found to be overfished in 1999, so the species is under a rebuilding plan. Framework 2, of the Monkfish Fishery Management Plan, implemented in May 2003, established biomass targets for monitoring the rebuilding process for Monkfish. There are no reliable estimates for total biomass, so weight/tow (in kg/tow) from trawl surveys is used as a biomass proxy. The target rebuilding year is 2009, with a biomass target (Btarget) of 2.5 kg/tow for the northern population (population in NFMA) and 1.85 kg/tow for the southern population. If biomass for either population falls below the biomass threshold limit (Bthreshold), that population is considered overfished (NEFMC and NMFS 2002).

In 2003, the three year average for biomass of Monkfish in the NFMA was 2.030 kg/tow, which is above the threshold biomass of 1.25 kg/tow, and about 81% of the rebuilding target of 2.5 kg/tow. The three year average for biomass of Monkfish in the SFMA was 0.930 kg/tow, which is equal to the threshold biomass of 0.093 kg/tow, and about 50% of the rebuilding target of 1.85 kg/tow. The biomass of the northern population reached its 2003 target of 1.49 kg/tow, but the southern population is below its target of 1.02 kg/tow (NEFMC 2004).

We awarded a score of one for this core point because both populations are below their rebuilding target biomasses, and the southern population remains significantly below.

Abundance increased initially after management was implemented in 1999, but then started a declining trend. Declines in abundance are most significant in the northern area, showing a continuous declining trend from 2000 to 2004. In the southern area, abundance had been showing signs of increasing since 2000, but is now dropped back to 2000 levels. Fishery scientists are particularly concerned about the four year declining trend in the north (Richards, Pers. Comm. 2004).

Research surveys conducted in 2001 and 2004 show that there are very few large Monkfish, compared to before the Monkfish fishery began. There are signs, however, that the size structure is improving. The sex ratio in the sampled areas varies with fish size and region. In the north, sex ratios are approximately 50:50 until fish reach approximately 60 cm in length, when the sex ratio becomes skewed towards females. In the south, sex ratios are 50:50 until around 40 cm, when the population becomes skewed towards males in the 40-60 cm range, then shifts to a preponderance of females. In both areas, all individuals larger than about 70 cm are females (Richards, Pers. Comm., 2004).

The Monkfish Monitoring Committee has determined that neither the southern nor northern populations are currently overfished (NMFS 2004).

Monkfish are targeted in multispecies fisheries, as well as caught incidentally and landed in other fisheries. Consequently, there is no true “directed” fishery. The NEFMC has defined the directed fishery for Monkfish as that which includes all trips that take more than 400 pounds of Monkfish. The non-directed fishery includes trips that take less than 400 pounds of Monkfish. Fishers catch Monkfish with trawls, scallop dredges and gillnets. Bottom otter trawls and bottom gillnets are the most commonly used gear in the directed fishery for monkfish (NEFMC 2004). Fishers are prohibited from using dredge gear to target Monkfish, however Monkfish are regularly caught incidentally and landed by fishers in the scallop dredge fishery. Monkfish score a 1 here because bottom trawls and dredges are damaging to the seafloor.

No critical habitat areas have been identified for Monkfish. They do not form aggregations, and they spawn in the water column. However, much remains unknown about the behavior and reproduction of Monkfish.

Amendment 2 to the Fishery Management Plan (FMP) for Monkfish, implemented in May 2005, has measures in place to help protect habitat from gear damage. Two deep-sea canyons which border areas where the offshore Monkfish fishery operates are now closed to vessels fishing on a Monkfish permit. This measure will protect known concentrations of deep-sea corals and sponges, and essential fish habitat for other species. Also, trawl vessels in the southern area are now limited to using roller discs of a maximum of 6 inches in diameter, which will prevent the fishery from expanding into areas of more complex bottom along the continental margin, and into the canyons. Most, if not all of the vessels in the trawl fishery are also multispecies permit holders, and as such are subject to the restrictions applicable under that FMP (NEFMC 2004).

Monkfish live in a range of habitats throughout their lives, including pelagic and demersal waters, saltmarsh creeks, seagrass beds, mudflats and open bay areas, as well as on mud, sand and structured habitat that contains sponges and other biota. Monkfish seem to be more densely congregated in mud and sandy bottoms, which have a high resilience to the effects of bottom trawlers and gillnets (NEFMC 2004). We therefore add points for this criterion.

A Fishery Management Plan (FMP) was implemented in November 1999 in response to industry concerns that the populations of Monkfish were decreasing. Management measures in the FMP include a multi-level limited access program, target catch levels (Total Allowable Catch, or TACs), days-at-sea limitations, trip limits, bycatch allowances, minimum fish sizes, minimum mesh sizes, gear restrictions, spawning season closures, and permitting and reporting requirements. However, rebuilding targets have not yet been met (NEFMC 2004).

Monitoring of catch and fishig effort is adequate. Current data sources are adequate for monitoring trends in abundance of Monkfish, but inadequate for conducting detailed age-structured analyses. However, data collections are in progress, which are likely to allow age-structured assessments in the future. No points were subtracted here to account for the work underway to improve monitoring of the age structure of the population (Richards, Pers. Comm. 2004).

Monkfish were declared overfished in 1999 when the FMP took effect. Consequently, managers instituted a 10-year rebuilding plan. Monkfish are no longer considered overfished, indicating that the recovery plan is working (NEFMC 2004).

During the 1970s, there was a 17-fold increase in Monkfish landings due to a sharp increase in demand for Monkfish tails in Europe and livers in Japan and other Asian countries. Monkfish became overfished because there were no quotas in place, which allowed for excessive fishing effort. Since 1999, management has responded by implementing quotas that may be adjusted annually and a limited access program. These measures combined with the fact that there are no subsidies in place for the fishery helps to keep the fishery from becoming overcapitalized. However, boats that catch Monkfish, but which are targeting other species, create excess capacity. Consequently, no points were added here.

Monkfish are caught in both directed fisheries and as incidental catch in trawl, gillnet, and scallop dredge fisheries. In 2002 (the latest year for which information is available), the majority of Monkfish landed in the northern area was caught in multispecies trawl fisheries, while fisheries in the southern area primarily landed Monkfish with large mesh gillnets. Discards of Monkfish in northern multispecies fishery is higher and more variable than the southern large mesh gillnet fishery, where discards of Monkfish are low. In 2002, for example, the 11% of Monkfish catches were discarded relative to total Monkfish landings in the northern trawl fishery, whereas there were no discards in the southern large mesh gillnet fishery. These estimates, however, only represent a snapshot in time, as the number of trips observed is low (NEFMC 2004).

Directed Monkfish fisheries also discard other species. In the northern area, Winter Skates and Dogfish are the species most frequently discarded. In the southern area, these same two species are make up the majority of discards, with the addition of Thorny Skates. Discards usually occur because the species caught are either too small to sell, are under the minimum size allowed by the fishery, or there is no demand in the market for them (NEFMC 2004).

Measures are in place to reduce interactions between Monkfish fisheries and protected species including marine mammals and sea turtles. Monkfish gillnet fisheries are subject to both the Harbor Porpoise Take Reduction Plan and the Atlantic Large Whale Take Reduction Plan. To reduce bycatch of Harbor Porpoises, gillnets fisheries are subject to time and area closures, and in some cases, gillnets must use acoustic deterrant devices and modify their fishing gear. Measures to reduce the likelihood of entangling large whales include gear modifications, time and area closures, disentanglement efforts, and other efforts including outreach and surveillance programs. In addition, there are seasonal closures for large mesh gillnets off of Virginia and North Carolina to reduce the impact of gillnet fisheries on endangered and threatened sea turtles (NEFMC 2004).

There are minimum mesh sizes in place for gillnet fisheries-10" for square mesh and 12" for diamond mesh-which have been shown to reduce the take of skates and other groundfish (NEFMC 2004).

Before the 1980s, Monkfish were caught as bycatch in scallop and groundfish fisheries, and were generally discarded. Since then, a major commercial fishery has developed for the fish (Seafood Business 2003).

Monkfish are taken as bycatch in many fisheries on the U.S. east coast. To reduce discards, all vessels that catch Monkfish may retain them. The amount of incidental catch from the previous year is deducted from the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) available to the directed fishery each year. However, observer coverage is poor, and discards probably go unreported (FMP 2004).

There are minimum mesh sizes in place for gillnet and trawl fisheries- 10" for square mesh and 12" for diamond mesh, which have been shown to reduce the take of juvenile Monkfish (NEFMC 2004).